Programmed Instruction
Volume 2, Issue 11 ~ December, 2007


Programmed Instruction: A “Technology of Teaching”

Introduction and History Programmed instruction, an instructional method based on behavior-analytic research, has been called a “technology of teaching.” Programmed instruction utilizes the scientific, behavioral principles of shaping (rewarding small steps toward a target behavior or skill), prompting, and feedback. While the principles behind programmed instruction have been used in teaching throughout history, formal programmed instruction began with the work of Sidney Pressey in the 1920s. Pressey’s goal was to assist teachers by creating a device that would automate the teaching tasks of administering and scoring tests. This device allowed students to be presented with a question and multiple-choices for answers. If the student selected the correct answer, the device would move on to the next question. If the student selected an incorrect answer, the error was recorded, and he or she was required to continue to make choices until the correct answer was selected. In addition to testing and scoring tests, Pressey reported that the device could also teach, by requiring the student to choose the correct answer before advancing to the next item. This allowed the student to receive immediate feedback on each response with little assistance from a teacher. After Pressey’s work was halted in the early 1930s due to lack of acceptance in the education community and the effects of the Great Depression, others continued to use these techniques for various purposes. Some of the military devices of the 1940s and 1950s incorporated the programmed instruction principles of overt responding, logically-ordered items, and immediate feedback. However, programmed instruction was not widely known until B.F. Skinner began to apply this method to the “teaching machine” in 1954. Skinner’s teaching machine was a mechanical device designed to use the principles of operant conditioning such that feedback (reinforcement) would be immediate, a student would be occupied for a specific period of instruction, and the student could achieve a nearly errorless performance. What is Programmed Instruction? Programmed instruction is characterized by the following elements: Arranged Contingencies of Reinforcement A contingency of reinforcement has three components. The first component is an antecedent stimulus (such as a test question or worksheet item) that precedes a response. An opportunity for response and the response follow an antecedent stimulus. The final component is a consequence (an outcome following a behavior or response, such as feedback about the correctness of a response). Skinner believed that a teaching machine was beneficial in that it could arrange subtle contingencies of reinforcement that optimize learning. Individualized Learning Programmed materials are considered individualized because they are self-pacing. They allow students to work comfortably at their own rate. Students also do not move on to more advanced material until they have mastered material already presented. Students can progress through the material without concern for “teaching to the group,” where some students are ahead and others are behind. Immediate Feedback Skinner believed that one of the major problems in education was a lack of immediate feedback for student responses. For example, when a student completes a worksheet or test, he or she does not receive feedback about his or her responses until the paper has been graded and returned, often a day later. According to Skinner, the function of immediate feedback in instruction is to shape and maintain a student’s appropriate responding. Immediate feedback is also often a reinforcer (reward) for correct responding. Prompting, Fading, and Shaping Programmed materials are said to be organized in a logical sequence. To complete the materials, and arrive at the “target behavior” the materials aim to teach, a student must complete a variety of carefully designed steps. Each step is very small when compared to the previous step, to help ensure student success, but still lead to the student toward the goal (the target behavior). This principle is called shaping, which is defined as reinforcing successive approximations to a target behavior. In the initial stages of the programmed material, students are more heavily prompted than in later stages. The cues are gradually reduced in a process called vanishing or fading. Skinner refers to this as “weaning” the students from the helpful conditions that the machine initially arranges. An Example In a 1958 article, “Teaching Machines,” Skinner provides an example of using programmed instruction to help high school or college students learn to recite a poem. At first, students are presented with the first line of the poem, with a few non-essential letters missing. The students read the line, filling in the missing letters. Succeeding lines are presented in the same way. The first line is then presented again, with several additional letters omitted. Since the line has been recently read, students are likely to be successful at this step. Again, succeeding lines are presented in the same way. The poem presented as increasingly incomplete, until the student is able to recite the poem without cues. Pros and Cons of Programmed Instruction Programmed instruction has many benefits, as well as some drawbacks. Some believe that programmed materials that guide students to the correct response can cause them to loose interest and motivation in the material being learned. Additionally, some research studies have suggested that programmed instruction is no more effective than traditional instruction, or is inferior when compared with traditional instruction. However, other studies indicate that programmed instruction is more successful at promoting learning than traditional instruction. The benefits of programmed instruction include programming for student success, careful study of the materials is encouraged by immediate feedback (since the consequences, either positive or negative, of traditional studying are too long deferred to make an impact on learning), and ease of learning. According to some research, programmed instruction is most effective when it is used in combination with other instructional approaches and teaching methods. Conclusion In conclusion, programmed instruction can be a useful tool for teachers when creating lessons and learning opportunities for their students. Although programmed instruction was studied by Skinner around forty years ago, it still has an influence today. Programmed instruction and teaching machines were precursors to modern computerized instruction, including online learning and interactive videos. Commenting on programmed instruction, Skinner stated that its uses in education could go beyond teaching machines, improving films, textbooks, and other instructional materials in ways that would significantly improve student learning. References Jaehnig, W. and Miller, M.L. (2007). Feedback types in programmed instruction: A systematic review. The Psychological Record, 57, 219-232. McDonald, J.K., Yanchar, S.C., and Osguthorpe, R.T. (2005). Learning from programmed instruction: Examining implications for modern instructional technology. Educational Technology Research & Development, 53(2), 84-98. Reiff, J.C. (1980). Individualized learning through programmed materials. Education, 100(3), 269-271. Skinner, B.F. (1958). Teaching machines. Science, 128(3330), 969-977. Skinner, B.F. (2003). The technology of teaching. Cambridge, MA: B.F. Skinner Foundation.

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